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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
# Anarchy
## Society without rulers
This article is about the state of government without authority. For the philosophy against authority, see [Anarchism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism "Anarchism").
**Anarchy** is a form of [society](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society "Society") without [rulers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruling_class "Ruling class"). As a type of [stateless society](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stateless_society "Stateless society"), it is commonly contrasted with [states](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_\(polity\) "State (polity)"), which are centralized polities that claim a [monopoly on violence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monopoly_on_violence "Monopoly on violence") over a permanent [territory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Territory "Territory"). Beyond a lack of [government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government "Government"), it can more precisely refer to societies that lack any form of [authority](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authority "Authority") or [hierarchy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hierarchy "Hierarchy"). While viewed positively by [anarchists](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchists "Anarchists"), the primary advocates of anarchy, it is viewed negatively by advocates of [statism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statism "Statism"), who see it in terms of [social disorder](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_disorder "Civil disorder").
The word "anarchy" was first defined by [Ancient Greek philosophy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy "Ancient Greek philosophy"), which understood it to be a corrupted form of [direct democracy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_democracy "Direct democracy"), where a majority of people exclusively pursue their own interests. This use of the word made its way into [Latin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin "Latin") during the [Middle Ages](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Ages "Middle Ages"), before the concepts of anarchy and democracy were disconnected from each other in the wake of the [Atlantic Revolutions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_Revolutions "Atlantic Revolutions"). During the [Age of Enlightenment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment "Age of Enlightenment"), philosophers began to look at anarchy in terms of the "[state of nature](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_of_nature "State of nature")", a thought experiment used to justify various forms of hierarchical government. By the late 18th century, some philosophers began to speak in defence of anarchy, seeing it as a preferable alternative to existing forms of [tyranny](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyranny "Tyranny"). This lay the foundations for the development of anarchism, which advocates for the creation of anarchy through [decentralisation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decentralisation "Decentralisation") and [federalism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federalism "Federalism").
As a concept, [anarchy](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/anarchy "wikt:anarchy") is commonly defined by what it excludes.[^footnotebell2020310-1] Etymologically, anarchy is derived from the [Greek](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_language "Greek language"): αναρχία, [romanized](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanization_of_Greek "Romanization of Greek"): *anarchia*; where "αν" ("an") means "without" and "αρχία" ("archia") means "ruler".[^footnotedupuis-d%c3%a9ri201013marshall20083-2] Therefore, anarchy is fundamentally defined by the absence of [rulers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruling_class "Ruling class").[^footnotechartiervan_schoelandt20201dupuis-d%c3%a9ri201013marshall200819%e2%80%9320mckay2018118%e2%80%93119-3]
While anarchy specifically represents a society without rulers, it can more generally refer to a [stateless society](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stateless_society "Stateless society"),[^footnotechartiervan_schoelandt20201dupuis-d%c3%a9ri201014%e2%80%9315-4] or a society without [government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government "Government").[^footnotemarshall20083morris202040sensen202099-5] Anarchy is thus defined in direct contrast to the [State](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_\(polity\) "State (polity)"),[^footnoteamster201815bell2020310boettkecandela2020226morris202039%e2%80%9342sensen202099-6] an institution that claims a [monopoly on violence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monopoly_on_violence "Monopoly on violence") over a given [territory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Territory "Territory").[^footnotebell2020310boettkecandela2020226morris202043%e2%80%9345-7] Anarchists such as [Errico Malatesta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Errico_Malatesta "Errico Malatesta") have also defined anarchy more precisely as a society without [authority](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authority "Authority"),[^footnotemarshall200842mclaughlin200712-8] or [hierarchy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hierarchy "Hierarchy").[^footnoteamster201823-9]
Anarchy is often defined synonymously as chaos or [social disorder](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_disorder "Civil disorder"),[^footnotebell2020309boettkecandela2020226chartiervan_schoelandt20201-10] reflecting the [state of nature](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_of_nature#Thomas_Hobbes "State of nature") as depicted by [Thomas Hobbes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes "Thomas Hobbes").[^footnoteboettkecandela2020226morris202039%e2%80%9340sensen202099-11] By this definition, anarchy represents not only an absence of government but also an absence of [governance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governance "Governance"). This connection of anarchy with chaos usually assumes that, without government, no means of governance exist and thus that disorder is an unavoidable outcome of anarchy.[^footnoteboettkecandela2020226-12] Sociologist [Francis Dupuis-Déri](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Dupuis-D%C3%A9ri "Francis Dupuis-Déri") has described chaos as a "degenerate form of anarchy", in which there is an absence, not just of rulers, but of any kind of political organization.[^footnotedupuis-d%c3%a9ri201016%e2%80%9317-13] He contrasts the "rule of all" under anarchy with the "rule of none" under chaos.[^footnotedupuis-d%c3%a9ri201017%e2%80%9318-14]
Since its conception, anarchy has been used in both a positive and negative sense, respectively describing a free society without coercion or a state of chaos.[^footnotemarshall20083-15]
## Conceptual development
### Classical philosophy
When the word "anarchy" ([Greek](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_language "Greek language"): αναρχία, [romanized](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanization_of_Greek "Romanization of Greek"): *anarchia*) was first defined in ancient Greece, it initially had both a positive and negative connotation, respectively referring to [spontaneous order](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spontaneous_order "Spontaneous order") or chaos without rulers. The latter definition was taken by the philosopher [Plato](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato "Plato"), who criticised [Athenian democracy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athenian_democracy "Athenian democracy") as "anarchical", and his disciple [Aristotle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle "Aristotle"), who questioned how to prevent democracy from descending into anarchy.[^footnotemarshall200866-16] [Ancient Greek philosophy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy "Ancient Greek philosophy") initially understood anarchy to be a corrupted form of [direct democracy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_democracy "Direct democracy"), although it later came to be conceived of as its own form of political regime, distinct from any kind of democracy.[^footnotedupuis-d%c3%a9ri20109-17] According to the traditional conception of political regimes, anarchy results when authority is derived from a majority of people who pursue their own interests.[^footnotedupuis-d%c3%a9ri201011-18]
### Post-classical development
During the [Middle Ages](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Ages "Middle Ages"), the word "anarchia" came into use in Latin, in order to describe the [eternal existence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God_and_eternity "God and eternity") of the [Christian God](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God_in_Christianity "God in Christianity"). It later came to reconstitute its original political definition, describing a society without government.[^footnotemarshall20083-15]
Christian theologists came to claim that [all humans were inherently sinful](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Original_sin "Original sin") and ought to submit to the [omnipotence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omnipotence "Omnipotence") of higher power, with the French Protestant reformer [John Calvin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Calvin "John Calvin") declaring that even the worst form of [tyranny](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyranny "Tyranny") was preferable to anarchy.[^footnotemarshall200874-19] The Scottish Quaker [Robert Barclay](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Barclay "Robert Barclay") also denounced the "anarchy" of [libertines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libertine "Libertine") such as the [Ranters](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ranters "Ranters").[^footnotemarshall2008106%e2%80%93107-20] In contrast, [radical Protestants](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radical_Reformation "Radical Reformation") such as the [Diggers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diggers "Diggers") advocated for anarchist societies based on [common ownership](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_ownership "Common ownership").[^footnotemarshall200898%e2%80%93100-21] Although following attempts to establish such a society, the Digger [Gerard Winstanley](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerard_Winstanley "Gerard Winstanley") came to advocate for an [authoritarian form](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authoritarian_socialism "Authoritarian socialism") of [communism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communism "Communism").[^footnotemarshall2008100-22]
During the 16th century, the term "anarchy" first came into use in the [English language](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_language "English language").[^footnotedavis201959%e2%80%9360marshall2008487-23] It was used to describe the disorder that results from the absence of or opposition to authority, with [John Milton](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Milton "John Milton") writing of "the waste/Wide anarchy of Chaos" in *[Paradise Lost](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paradise_Lost "Paradise Lost")*.[^footnotemarshall2008487-24] Initially used as a pejorative descriptor for [democracy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy "Democracy"), the two terms began to diverge following the [Atlantic Revolutions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_Revolutions "Atlantic Revolutions"), when democracy took on a positive connotation and was redefined as a form of [elected](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electoral_system "Electoral system"), [representational government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Representative_democracy "Representative democracy").[^footnotedavis201959%e2%80%9360-25]
### Enlightenment philosophy
Political philosophers of the [Age of Enlightenment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment "Age of Enlightenment") contrasted the [state](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_\(polity\) "State (polity)") with what they called the "[state of nature](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_of_nature "State of nature")", a hypothetical description of stateless society, although they disagreed on its definition.[^footnotemorris202039%e2%80%9340-26] [Thomas Hobbes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes "Thomas Hobbes") considered the state of nature to be a "nightmare of permanent war of all against all".[^footnotemarshall2008xsensen202099%e2%80%93100-27] In contrast, [John Locke](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Locke "John Locke") considered it to be a harmonious society in which people lived "according to reason, without a common superior". They would be subject only to [natural law](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_law "Natural law"), with otherwise "perfect freedom to order their actions".[^footnotemarshall2008x-28]
In depicting the "state of nature" to be a free and equal society governed by natural law, Locke distinguished between society and the state.[^footnotemarshall200813%e2%80%9314-29] He argued that, without established laws, such a society would be inherently unstable, which would make a [limited government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limited_government "Limited government") necessary in order to protect people's [natural rights](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_rights_and_legal_rights "Natural rights and legal rights").[^footnotemarshall200813%e2%80%9314,_129-30] He likewise argued that limiting the reach of the state was reasonable when peaceful cooperation without a state was possible.[^footnotechartiervan_schoelandt20203-31] His thoughts on the state of nature and limited government ultimately provided the foundation for the [classical liberal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_liberalism "Classical liberalism") argument for *[laissez-faire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laissez-faire "Laissez-faire")*.[^footnotemarshall200814-32]
#### Kant's thought experiment
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Immanuel_Kant_%28painted_portrait%29.jpg/220px-Immanuel_Kant_%28painted_portrait%29.jpg)
[German idealist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_idealism "German idealism") philosopher [Immanuel Kant](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant "Immanuel Kant"), who looked at anarchy as a thought experiment to justify government
[Immanuel Kant](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant "Immanuel Kant") defined "anarchy", in terms of the "state of nature", as a lack of government. He discussed the concept of anarchy in order to question why humanity ought to leave the state of nature behind and instead submit to a "[legitimate government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legitimacy_\(political\) "Legitimacy (political)")".[^footnotesensen202099-33] In contrast to Thomas Hobbes, who conceived of the state of nature as a "war of all against all" which existed throughout the world, Kant considered it to be only a [thought experiment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought_experiment "Thought experiment"). Kant believed that [human nature](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_nature "Human nature") drove people to not only seek out [society](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society "Society") but also to attempt to attain a [superior hierarchical status](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superior_\(hierarchy\) "Superior (hierarchy)").[^footnotesensen202099%e2%80%93100-34]
While Kant distinguished between different forms of the state of nature, contrasting the "solitary" form against the "social", he held that there was no means of [distributive justice](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributive_justice "Distributive justice") in such a circumstance. He considered that, without [law](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law "Law"), a [judiciary](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judiciary "Judiciary") and means for [law enforcement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_enforcement "Law enforcement"), the danger of violence would be ever-present, as each person could only judge for themselves what is right without any form of arbitration. He thus concluded that human society ought to leave the state of nature behind and submit to the authority of a state.[^footnotesensen2020100-35] Kant argued that the threat of violence incentivises humans, by the need to preserve their own safety, to leave the state of nature and submit to the state.[^footnotesensen2020100%e2%80%93101-36] Based on his "[hypothetical imperative](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothetical_imperative "Hypothetical imperative")", he argued that if humans desire to secure their own safety, then they ought to avoid anarchy.[^footnotesensen2020101-37] But he also argued, according to his "[categorical imperative](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Categorical_imperative "Categorical imperative")", that it is not only [prudent](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prudence "Prudence") but also a [moral](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deontology "Deontology") and [political obligation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_obligation "Political obligation") to avoid anarchy and submit to a state.[^footnotesensen2020101%e2%80%93102-38] Kant thus concluded that even if people did not desire to leave anarchy, they ought to as a matter of duty to abide by universal laws.[^footnotesensen2020107%e2%80%93109-39]
#### Defense of the state of nature
In contrast, [Edmund Burke](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Burke "Edmund Burke")'s 1756 work *[A Vindication of Natural Society](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Vindication_of_Natural_Society "A Vindication of Natural Society")*, argued in favour of anarchist society in a defense of the state of nature.[^footnotemarshall2008133-40] Burke insisted that reason was all that was needed to govern society and that "artificial laws" had been responsible for all social conflict and inequality, which led him to denounce the church and the state.[^footnotemarshall2008133%e2%80%93134-41] Burke's anti-statist arguments preceded the work of classical anarchists and directly inspired the political philosophy of [William Godwin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Godwin "William Godwin").[^footnotemarshall2008134-42]
![Portrait painting of William Godwin](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/WilliamGodwin.jpg/220px-WilliamGodwin.jpg)
English political philosopher [William Godwin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Godwin "William Godwin"), an early proponent of anarchy as a political regime
In his 1793 book *[Political Justice](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enquiry_Concerning_Political_Justice "Enquiry Concerning Political Justice")*, Godwin proposed the creation of a more just and free society by abolishing government, concluding that order could be achieved through anarchy.[^footnotemarshall2008206mclaughlin2007117%e2%80%93118-43] Although he came to be known as a founding father of anarchism,[^footnotemarshall2008488-44] Godwin himself mostly used the word "anarchy" in its negative definition,[^footnotemarshall2008214,_488-45] fearing that an immediate dissolution of government without any prior political development would lead to disorder.[^footnotemarshall2008214-46] Godwin held that the anarchy could be best realised through gradual evolution, by cultivating reason through education, rather than through a sudden and violent revolution.[^footnotemclaughlin2007132-47] But he also considered transitory anarchy to be preferable to lasting [despotism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Despotism "Despotism"), stating that anarchy bore a distorted resemblance to "true liberty"[^footnotemarshall2008214,_488-45] and could eventually give way to "the best form of human society".[^footnotemarshall2008214-46]
This positive conception of anarchy was soon taken up by other political philosophers. In his 1792 work *[The Limits of State Action](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Limits_of_State_Action "The Limits of State Action")*, [Wilhelm von Humboldt](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_von_Humboldt "Wilhelm von Humboldt") came to consider an anarchist society, which he conceived of as a community built on voluntary contracts between educated individuals, to be "infinitely preferred to any State arrangements".[^footnotemarshall2008154%e2%80%93155-48] The French political philosopher [Donatien Alphonse François](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marquis_de_Sade "Marquis de Sade"), in his 1797 novel *[Juliette](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juliette_\(novel\) "Juliette (novel)")*, questioned what form of government was best.[^footnotemarshall2008146-49] He argued that it was passion, not law, that had driven human society forward, concluding by calling for the abolition of law and a return to a state of nature by accepting anarchy.[^footnotemarshall2008146%e2%80%93147-50] He concluded by declaring anarchy to be the best form of political regime, as it was law that gave rise to [tyranny](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyranny "Tyranny") and anarchic revolution that was capable of bringing down bad governments.[^footnotemarshall2008147-51] After the [American Revolution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Revolution "American Revolution"), [Thomas Jefferson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson "Thomas Jefferson") suggested that a stateless society might lead to greater happiness for humankind and has been attributed the maxim "that government is best which governs least". Jefferson's political philosophy later inspired the development of [individualist anarchism in the United States](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Individualist_anarchism_in_the_United_States "Individualist anarchism in the United States"), with contemporary [right-libertarians](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right-libertarianism "Right-libertarianism") proposing that private property could be used to guarantee anarchy.[^footnotemarshall2008497-52]
![Portrait painting of Pierre-Joseph Proudhon](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Portrait_of_Pierre_Joseph_Proudhon_1865.jpg/220px-Portrait_of_Pierre_Joseph_Proudhon_1865.jpg)
[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre-Joseph_Proudhon "Pierre-Joseph Proudhon"), the first person to self-identify with the term "anarchist" and one of the first to redefine "anarchy" in a positive sense
[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre-Joseph_Proudhon "Pierre-Joseph Proudhon") was the first person known to self-identify as an anarchist, adopting the label in order to provoke those that took anarchy to mean disorder.[^footnotemarshall2008234-53] Proudhon was one of the first people to use the word "anarchy" ([French](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_language "French language"): *anarchie*) in a positive sense, to mean a free society without government.[^footnoteprichard201971-54] To Proudhon, as anarchy did not allow coercion, it could be defined synoymously with [liberty](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberty "Liberty").[^footnoteprichard201984-55] In arguing against [monarchy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monarchy "Monarchy"), he claimed that "the [Republic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic "Republic") is a positive anarchy ... it is the liberty that is the MOTHER, not the daughter, of order."[^footnoteprichard201971-54] While acknowledging this common definition of anarchy as disorder, Proudhon claimed that it was actually authoritarian government and wealth inequality that were the true causes of social disorder.[^footnotemarshall2008239-56] By counterposing this against anarchy, which he defined as an absence of rulers,[^footnotemarshall20085,_239mckay2018118%e2%80%93119mclaughlin2007137-57] Proudhon declared that "just as man seeks justice in equality, society seeks order in anarchy".[^footnotemarshall20085,_239mclaughlin2007137-58] Proudhon based his case for anarchy on his conception of a just and moral state of nature.[^footnotemarshall200839-59]
Proudhon posited [federalism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federalism "Federalism") as an organizational form and [mutualism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutualism_\(economic_theory\) "Mutualism (economic theory)") as an economic form, which he believed would lead towards the end goal of anarchy.[^footnotemarshall20087-60] In his 1863 work *The Federal Principle*, Proudhon elaborated his view of anarchy as "the government of each man by himself," using the English term of "self-government" as a synonym for it.[^footnotemarshall2008252,_254-61] According to Proudhon, under anarchy, "all citizens reign and govern" through [direct participation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_participation_\(decision_making\) "Public participation (decision making)") in decision-making.[^footnotemckay2018120-62] He proposed that this could be achieved through a system of [federalism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federalism "Federalism") and [decentralisation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decentralisation "Decentralisation"),[^footnotemarshall2008252mckay2018120-63] in which every community is self-governing and any delegation of decision-making is subject to [immediate recall](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recall_election "Recall election").[^footnotemckay2018120-62] He likewise called for the economy to be brought under [industrial democracy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_democracy "Industrial democracy"), which would abolish [private property](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_property "Private property").[^footnotemckay2018120%e2%80%93121-64] Proudhon believed that all this would eventually lead to anarchy, as individual and collective interests aligned and [spontaneous order](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spontaneous_order "Spontaneous order") is achieved.[^footnotemarshall2008254%e2%80%93255-65]
Proudhon thus came to be known as the "father of anarchy" by the anarchist movement, which emerged from the [libertarian socialist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libertarian_socialism "Libertarian socialism") faction of the [International Workingmen's Association](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Workingmen%27s_Association "International Workingmen's Association") (IWA).[^footnotemarshall2008235%e2%80%93236-66] Until the establishment of IWA in 1864, there had been no anarchist movement, only individuals and groups that saw anarchy as their end goal.[^footnotegraham2019326-67]
![Portrait photograph of Mikhail Bakunin](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Bakunin_Nadar.jpg/220px-Bakunin_Nadar.jpg)
[Mikhail Bakunin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Bakunin "Mikhail Bakunin"), who infused the term "anarchy" with simultaneous positive and negative definitions
One of Proudhon's keenest students was the Russian revolutionary [Mikhail Bakunin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Bakunin "Mikhail Bakunin"), who adopted his critiques of private property and government, as well as his views on the desirability of anarchy.[^footnotemarshall2008269%e2%80%93270-68] During the [Revolutions of 1848](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848 "Revolutions of 1848"), Bakunin wrote of his hopes of igniting a revolutionary upheaval in the [Russian Empire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Empire "Russian Empire"), writing to the German poet [Georg Herwegh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Herwegh "Georg Herwegh") that "I do not fear anarchy, but desire it with all my heart". Although he still used the negative definition of anarchy as disorder, he nevertheless saw the need for "something different: passion and life and a new world, lawless and thereby free."[^footnotemarshall2008271-69]
Bakunin popularised "anarchy" as a term,[^footnotemarshall20085-70] using both its negative and positive definitions,[^footnotemarshall2008265-71] in order to respectively describe the disorderly destruction of revolution and the construction of a new social order in the post-revolutionary society.[^footnotegraham2019330marshall20085,_285,_306-72] Bakunin envisioned the creation of an "International Brotherhood", which could lead people through "the thick of popular anarchy" in a [social revolution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_revolution "Social revolution").[^footnotegraham2019330-73] Upon joining the IWA, in 1869, Bakunin drew up a programme for such a Brotherhood, in which he infused the word "anarchy" with a more positive connotation:[^footnotemarshall2008281%e2%80%93282-74]
> We do not fear anarchy, we invoke it. For we are convinced that anarchy, meaning the unrestricted manifestation of the liberated life of the people, must spring from liberty, equality, the new social order, and the force of the revolution itself against the reaction. There is no doubt that this new life – the popular revolution – will in good time organize itself, but it will create its revolutionary organization from the bottom up, from the circumference to the center, in accordance with the principle of liberty, and not from the top down or from the center to the circumference in the manner of all authority. It matters little to us if that authority is called [Church](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_Church "Christian Church"), [Monarchy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monarchy "Monarchy"), [constitutional State](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitutionalism "Constitutionalism"), [bourgeois Republic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_republic "Democratic republic"), or even [revolutionary Dictatorship](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictatorship_of_the_proletariat "Dictatorship of the proletariat"). We detest and reject all of them equally as the unfailing sources of exploitation and despotism.
- [Anti-authoritarianism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-authoritarianism "Anti-authoritarianism")
- [Criticisms of electoral politics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticisms_of_electoral_politics "Criticisms of electoral politics")
- [Libertarian socialism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libertarian_socialism "Libertarian socialism")
- [List of anarchist organizations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_anarchist_organizations "List of anarchist organizations")
- [Outline of anarchism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_anarchism "Outline of anarchism")
- [Power vacuum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_vacuum "Power vacuum")
- [Rebellion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rebellion "Rebellion")
- [Relationship anarchy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relationship_anarchy "Relationship anarchy")
- [State of nature](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_of_nature "State of nature")
[^footnotebell2020310-1]: [Bell 2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFBell2020), p. 310.
[^footnotedupuis-déri201013marshall20083-2]: [Dupuis-Déri 2010](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFDupuis-D%C3%A9ri2010), p. 13; [Marshall 2008](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFMarshall2008), p. 3.
[^footnotechartiervan_schoelandt20201dupuis-déri201013marshall200819–20mckay2018118–119-3]: [Chartier & Van Schoelandt 2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFChartierVan_Schoelandt2020), p. 1; [Dupuis-Déri 2010](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFDupuis-D%C3%A9ri2010), p. 13; [Marshall 2008](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFMarshall2008), pp. 19–20; [McKay 2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFMcKay2018), pp. 118–119.
[^footnotechartiervan_schoelandt20201dupuis-déri201014–15-4]: [Chartier & Van Schoelandt 2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFChartierVan_Schoelandt2020), p. 1; [Dupuis-Déri 2010](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFDupuis-D%C3%A9ri2010), pp. 14–15.
[^footnotemarshall20083morris202040sensen202099-5]: [Marshall 2008](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFMarshall2008), p. 3; [Morris 2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFMorris2020), p. 40; [Sensen 2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFSensen2020), p. 99.
[^footnoteamster201815bell2020310boettkecandela2020226morris202039–42sensen202099-6]: [Amster 2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFAmster2018), p. 15; [Bell 2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFBell2020), p. 310; [Boettke & Candela 2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFBoettkeCandela2020), p. 226; [Morris 2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFMorris2020), pp. 39–42; [Sensen 2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFSensen2020), p. 99.
[^footnotebell2020310boettkecandela2020226morris202043–45-7]: [Bell 2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFBell2020), p. 310; [Boettke & Candela 2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFBoettkeCandela2020), p. 226; [Morris 2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFMorris2020), pp. 43–45.
[^footnotemarshall200842mclaughlin200712-8]: [Marshall 2008](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFMarshall2008), p. 42; [McLaughlin 2007](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFMcLaughlin2007), p. 12.
[^footnoteamster201823-9]: [Amster 2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFAmster2018), p. 23.
[^footnotebell2020309boettkecandela2020226chartiervan_schoelandt20201-10]: [Bell 2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFBell2020), p. 309; [Boettke & Candela 2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFBoettkeCandela2020), p. 226; [Chartier & Van Schoelandt 2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFChartierVan_Schoelandt2020), p. 1.
[^footnoteboettkecandela2020226morris202039–40sensen202099-11]: [Boettke & Candela 2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFBoettkeCandela2020), p. 226; [Morris 2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFMorris2020), pp. 39–40; [Sensen 2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFSensen2020), p. 99.
[^footnoteboettkecandela2020226-12]: [Boettke & Candela 2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFBoettkeCandela2020), p. 226.
[^footnotedupuis-déri201016–17-13]: [Dupuis-Déri 2010](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFDupuis-D%C3%A9ri2010), pp. 16–17.
[^footnotedupuis-déri201017–18-14]: [Dupuis-Déri 2010](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFDupuis-D%C3%A9ri2010), pp. 17–18.
[^footnotemarshall20083-15]: [Marshall 2008](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFMarshall2008), p. 3.
[^footnotemarshall200866-16]: [Marshall 2008](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFMarshall2008), p. 66.
[^footnotedupuis-déri20109-17]: [Dupuis-Déri 2010](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFDupuis-D%C3%A9ri2010), p. 9.
[^footnotedupuis-déri201011-18]: [Dupuis-Déri 2010](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFDupuis-D%C3%A9ri2010), p. 11.
[^footnotemarshall200874-19]: [Marshall 2008](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFMarshall2008), p. 74.
[^footnotemarshall2008106–107-20]: [Marshall 2008](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFMarshall2008), pp. 106–107.
[^footnotemarshall200898–100-21]: [Marshall 2008](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFMarshall2008), pp. 98–100.
[^footnotemarshall2008100-22]: [Marshall 2008](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFMarshall2008), p. 100.
[^footnotedavis201959–60marshall2008487-23]: [Davis 2019](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFDavis2019), pp. 59–60; [Marshall 2008](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFMarshall2008), p. 487.
[^footnotemarshall2008487-24]: [Marshall 2008](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFMarshall2008), p. 487.
[^footnotedavis201959–60-25]: [Davis 2019](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFDavis2019), pp. 59–60.
[^footnotemorris202039–40-26]: [Morris 2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFMorris2020), pp. 39–40.
[^footnotemarshall2008xsensen202099–100-27]: [Marshall 2008](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFMarshall2008), p. x; [Sensen 2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFSensen2020), pp. 99–100.
[^footnotemarshall2008x-28]: [Marshall 2008](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFMarshall2008), p. x.
[^footnotemarshall200813–14-29]: [Marshall 2008](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFMarshall2008), pp. 13–14.
[^footnotemarshall200813–14,_129-30]: [Marshall 2008](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFMarshall2008), pp. 13–14, 129.
[^footnotechartiervan_schoelandt20203-31]: [Chartier & Van Schoelandt 2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFChartierVan_Schoelandt2020), p. 3.
[^footnotemarshall200814-32]: [Marshall 2008](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFMarshall2008), p. 14.
[^footnotesensen202099-33]: [Sensen 2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFSensen2020), p. 99.
[^footnotesensen202099–100-34]: [Sensen 2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFSensen2020), pp. 99–100.
[^footnotesensen2020100-35]: [Sensen 2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFSensen2020), p. 100.
[^footnotesensen2020100–101-36]: [Sensen 2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFSensen2020), pp. 100–101.
[^footnotesensen2020101-37]: [Sensen 2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFSensen2020), p. 101.
[^footnotesensen2020101–102-38]: [Sensen 2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFSensen2020), pp. 101–102.
[^footnotesensen2020107–109-39]: [Sensen 2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFSensen2020), pp. 107–109.
[^footnotemarshall2008133-40]: [Marshall 2008](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFMarshall2008), p. 133.
[^footnotemarshall2008133–134-41]: [Marshall 2008](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFMarshall2008), pp. 133–134.
[^footnotemarshall2008134-42]: [Marshall 2008](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFMarshall2008), p. 134.
[^footnotemarshall2008206mclaughlin2007117–118-43]: [Marshall 2008](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFMarshall2008), p. 206; [McLaughlin 2007](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFMcLaughlin2007), pp. 117–118.
[^footnotemarshall2008488-44]: [Marshall 2008](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFMarshall2008), p. 488.
[^footnotemarshall2008214,_488-45]: [Marshall 2008](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFMarshall2008), pp. 214, 488.
[^footnotemarshall2008214-46]: [Marshall 2008](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFMarshall2008), p. 214.
[^footnotemclaughlin2007132-47]: [McLaughlin 2007](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFMcLaughlin2007), p. 132.
[^footnotemarshall2008154–155-48]: [Marshall 2008](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFMarshall2008), pp. 154–155.
[^footnotemarshall2008146-49]: [Marshall 2008](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFMarshall2008), p. 146.
[^footnotemarshall2008146–147-50]: [Marshall 2008](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFMarshall2008), pp. 146–147.
[^footnotemarshall2008147-51]: [Marshall 2008](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFMarshall2008), p. 147.
[^footnotemarshall2008497-52]: [Marshall 2008](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFMarshall2008), p. 497.
[^footnotemarshall2008234-53]: [Marshall 2008](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFMarshall2008), p. 234.
[^footnoteprichard201971-54]: [Prichard 2019](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFPrichard2019), p. 71.
[^footnoteprichard201984-55]: [Prichard 2019](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFPrichard2019), p. 84.
[^footnotemarshall2008239-56]: [Marshall 2008](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFMarshall2008), p. 239.
[^footnotemarshall20085,_239mckay2018118–119mclaughlin2007137-57]: [Marshall 2008](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFMarshall2008), pp. 5, 239; [McKay 2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFMcKay2018), pp. 118–119; [McLaughlin 2007](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFMcLaughlin2007), p. 137.
[^footnotemarshall20085,_239mclaughlin2007137-58]: [Marshall 2008](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFMarshall2008), pp. 5, 239; [McLaughlin 2007](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFMcLaughlin2007), p. 137.
[^footnotemarshall200839-59]: [Marshall 2008](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFMarshall2008), p. 39.
[^footnotemarshall20087-60]: [Marshall 2008](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFMarshall2008), p. 7.
[^footnotemarshall2008252,_254-61]: [Marshall 2008](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFMarshall2008), pp. 252, 254.
[^footnotemckay2018120-62]: [McKay 2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFMcKay2018), p. 120.
[^footnotemarshall2008252mckay2018120-63]: [Marshall 2008](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFMarshall2008), p. 252; [McKay 2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFMcKay2018), p. 120.
[^footnotemckay2018120–121-64]: [McKay 2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFMcKay2018), pp. 120–121.
[^footnotemarshall2008254–255-65]: [Marshall 2008](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFMarshall2008), pp. 254–255.
[^footnotemarshall2008235–236-66]: [Marshall 2008](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFMarshall2008), pp. 235–236.
[^footnotegraham2019326-67]: [Graham 2019](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFGraham2019), p. 326.
[^footnotemarshall2008269–270-68]: [Marshall 2008](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFMarshall2008), pp. 269–270.
[^footnotemarshall2008271-69]: [Marshall 2008](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFMarshall2008), p. 271.
[^footnotemarshall20085-70]: [Marshall 2008](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFMarshall2008), p. 5.
[^footnotemarshall2008265-71]: [Marshall 2008](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFMarshall2008), p. 265.
[^footnotegraham2019330marshall20085,_285,_306-72]: [Graham 2019](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFGraham2019), p. 330; [Marshall 2008](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFMarshall2008), pp. 5, 285, 306.
[^footnotegraham2019330-73]: [Graham 2019](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFGraham2019), p. 330.
[^footnotemarshall2008281–282-74]: [Marshall 2008](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#CITEREFMarshall2008), pp. 281–282.
- [Amster, Randall](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Randall_Amster "Randall Amster") (2018). "Anti-Hierarchy". In Franks, Benjamin; Jun, Nathan; Williams, Leonard (eds.). *Anarchism: A Conceptual Approach*. [Routledge](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Routledge "Routledge"). pp. 15–27\. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-1-138-92565-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-138-92565-6 "Special:BookSources/978-1-138-92565-6"). [LCCN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LCCN_\(identifier\) "LCCN (identifier)") [2017044519](https://lccn.loc.gov/2017044519).
- Bell, Tom W. (2020). "The Forecast for Anarchy". In Chartier, Gary; Van Schoelandt, Chad (eds.). *The Routledge Handbook of Anarchy and Anarchist Thought*. [New York](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City "New York City"): [Routledge](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Routledge "Routledge"). pp. 309–324\. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10.4324/9781315185255-22](https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781315185255-22). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)") [9781315185255](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781315185255 "Special:BookSources/9781315185255"). [S2CID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_\(identifier\) "S2CID (identifier)") [228898569](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:228898569).
- [Boettke, Peter J.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Boettke "Peter Boettke"); Candela, Rosolino A. (2020). "The Positive Political Economy of Analytical Anarchism". In Chartier, Gary; Van Schoelandt, Chad (eds.). *The Routledge Handbook of Anarchy and Anarchist Thought*. [New York](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City "New York City"): [Routledge](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Routledge "Routledge"). pp. 222–234\. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10.4324/9781315185255-15](https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781315185255-15). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)") [9781315185255](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781315185255 "Special:BookSources/9781315185255"). [S2CID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_\(identifier\) "S2CID (identifier)") [228898569](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:228898569).
- [Chartier, Gary](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gary_Chartier "Gary Chartier"); Van Schoelandt, Chad (2020). "Introduction". In Chartier, Gary; Van Schoelandt, Chad (eds.). *The Routledge Handbook of Anarchy and Anarchist Thought*. [New York](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City "New York City"): [Routledge](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Routledge "Routledge"). pp. 1–12\. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10.4324/9781315185255](https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781315185255). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)") [9781315185255](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781315185255 "Special:BookSources/9781315185255"). [S2CID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_\(identifier\) "S2CID (identifier)") [228898569](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:228898569).
- Davis, Lawrence (2019). "Individual and Community". In Adams, Matthew S.; Levy, Carl (eds.). *The Palgrave Handbook of Anarchism*. London: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 47–70\. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10.1007/978-3-319-75620-2\_3](https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-319-75620-2_3). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-3319756196](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3319756196 "Special:BookSources/978-3319756196"). [S2CID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_\(identifier\) "S2CID (identifier)") [158605651](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:158605651).
- [Dupuis-Déri, Francis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Dupuis-D%C3%A9ri "Francis Dupuis-Déri") (2010). "Anarchy in Political Philosophy". In Jun, Nathan J.; Wahl, Shane (eds.). *New Perspectives on Anarchism*. [Rowman & Littlefield](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rowman_%26_Littlefield "Rowman & Littlefield"). pp. 9–24\. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-7391-3240-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7391-3240-1 "Special:BookSources/978-0-7391-3240-1"). [LCCN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LCCN_\(identifier\) "LCCN (identifier)") [2009015304](https://lccn.loc.gov/2009015304).
- [Graham, Robert](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Graham_\(historian\) "Robert Graham (historian)") (2019). "Anarchism and the First International". In Adams, Matthew S.; Levy, Carl (eds.). *The Palgrave Handbook of Anarchism*. London: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 325–342\. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10.1007/978-3-319-75620-2\_19](https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-319-75620-2_19). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-3319756196](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3319756196 "Special:BookSources/978-3319756196"). [S2CID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_\(identifier\) "S2CID (identifier)") [158605651](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:158605651).
- [Marshall, Peter H.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Marshall_\(author,_born_1946\) "Peter Marshall (author, born 1946)") (2008) \[1992\]. *[Demanding the Impossible: A History of Anarchism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demanding_the_Impossible "Demanding the Impossible")*. [London](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London "London"): [Harper Perennial](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harper_Perennial "Harper Perennial"). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-00-686245-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-00-686245-1 "Special:BookSources/978-0-00-686245-1"). [OCLC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_\(identifier\) "OCLC (identifier)") [218212571](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/218212571).
- McKay, Iain (2018). "Organisation". In Franks, Benjamin; Jun, Nathan; Williams, Leonard (eds.). *Anarchism: A Conceptual Approach*. [Routledge](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Routledge "Routledge"). pp. 115–128\. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-1-138-92565-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-138-92565-6 "Special:BookSources/978-1-138-92565-6"). [LCCN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LCCN_\(identifier\) "LCCN (identifier)") [2017044519](https://lccn.loc.gov/2017044519).
- McLaughlin, Paul (2007). [*Anarchism and Authority: A Philosophical Introduction to Classical Anarchism*](https://books.google.com/books?id=kkj5i3CeGbQC). Aldershot: [Ashgate Publishing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashgate_Publishing "Ashgate Publishing"). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-7546-6196-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-6196-2 "Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-6196-2"). [LCCN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LCCN_\(identifier\) "LCCN (identifier)") [2007007973](https://lccn.loc.gov/2007007973).
- [Morris, Christopher W.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_W._Morris "Christopher W. Morris") (2020). "On the Distinction Between State and Anarchy". In Chartier, Gary; Van Schoelandt, Chad (eds.). *The Routledge Handbook of Anarchy and Anarchist Thought*. [New York](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City "New York City"): [Routledge](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Routledge "Routledge"). pp. 39–52\. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10.4324/9781315185255-3](https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781315185255-3). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)") [9781315185255](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781315185255 "Special:BookSources/9781315185255"). [S2CID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_\(identifier\) "S2CID (identifier)") [228898569](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:228898569).
- Prichard, Alex (2019). "Freedom". In Adams, Matthew S.; Levy, Carl (eds.). *The Palgrave Handbook of Anarchism*. London: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 71–89\. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10.1007/978-3-319-75620-2\_4](https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-319-75620-2_4). [hdl](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hdl_\(identifier\) "Hdl (identifier)"):[10871/32538](https://hdl.handle.net/10871%2F32538). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-3319756196](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3319756196 "Special:BookSources/978-3319756196"). [S2CID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_\(identifier\) "S2CID (identifier)") [158605651](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:158605651).
- [Sensen, Oliver](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Sensen "Oliver Sensen") (2020). "Kant on Anarchy". In Chartier, Gary; Van Schoelandt, Chad (eds.). *The Routledge Handbook of Anarchy and Anarchist Thought*. [New York](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City "New York City"): [Routledge](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Routledge "Routledge"). pp. 99–111\. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10.4324/9781315185255-7](https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781315185255-7). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)") [9781315185255](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781315185255 "Special:BookSources/9781315185255"). [S2CID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_\(identifier\) "S2CID (identifier)") [228898569](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:228898569).
- [Crowe, Jonathan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonathan_Crowe "Jonathan Crowe") (2020). "Anarchy and Law". In Chartier, Gary; Van Schoelandt, Chad (eds.). *The Routledge Handbook of Anarchy and Anarchist Thought*. [New York](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City "New York City"): [Routledge](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Routledge "Routledge"). pp. 281–294\. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10.4324/9781315185255-20](https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781315185255-20). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)") [9781315185255](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781315185255 "Special:BookSources/9781315185255"). [S2CID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_\(identifier\) "S2CID (identifier)") [228898569](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:228898569).
- Gabay, Clive (2010). "What Did the Anarchists Ever Do for Us? Anarchy, Decentralization, and Autonomy at the Seattle Anti-WTO Protests". In Jun, Nathan J.; Wahl, Shane (eds.). *New Perspectives on Anarchism*. [Rowman & Littlefield](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rowman_%26_Littlefield "Rowman & Littlefield"). pp. 121–132\. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-7391-3240-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7391-3240-1 "Special:BookSources/978-0-7391-3240-1"). [LCCN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LCCN_\(identifier\) "LCCN (identifier)") [2009015304](https://lccn.loc.gov/2009015304).
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- [Huemer, Michael](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Huemer "Michael Huemer") (2020). "The Right Anarchy: Capitalist or Socialist?". In Chartier, Gary; Van Schoelandt, Chad (eds.). *The Routledge Handbook of Anarchy and Anarchist Thought*. [New York](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City "New York City"): [Routledge](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Routledge "Routledge"). pp. 342–359\. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10.4324/9781315185255-24](https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781315185255-24). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)") [9781315185255](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781315185255 "Special:BookSources/9781315185255"). [S2CID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_\(identifier\) "S2CID (identifier)") [228898569](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:228898569).
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- [Powell, Benjamin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Powell "Benjamin Powell"); [Stringham, Edward P.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Stringham "Edward Stringham") (2009). ["Public choice and the economic analysis of anarchy: a survey"](https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/26097/1/MPRA_paper_26097.pdf) (PDF). *[Public Choice](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_Choice_\(journal\) "Public Choice (journal)")*. **140** (3–4): 503–538\. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10.1007/s11127-009-9407-1](https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11127-009-9407-1). [ISSN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_\(identifier\) "ISSN (identifier)") [1573-7101](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1573-7101). [S2CID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_\(identifier\) "S2CID (identifier)") [189842170](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:189842170).
- [Newman, Saul](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saul_Newman "Saul Newman") (2019). "Postanarchism". In Adams, Matthew S.; Levy, Carl (eds.). *The Palgrave Handbook of Anarchism*. London: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 293–304\. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10.1007/978-3-319-75620-2\_17](https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-319-75620-2_17). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-3319756196](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3319756196 "Special:BookSources/978-3319756196"). [S2CID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_\(identifier\) "S2CID (identifier)") [158605651](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:158605651).
- Shannon, Deric (2018). "Economy". In Franks, Benjamin; Jun, Nathan; Williams, Leonard (eds.). *Anarchism: A Conceptual Approach*. [Routledge](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Routledge "Routledge"). pp. 142–154\. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-1-138-92565-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-138-92565-6 "Special:BookSources/978-1-138-92565-6"). [LCCN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LCCN_\(identifier\) "LCCN (identifier)") [2017044519](https://lccn.loc.gov/2017044519).
- Shantz, Jeff; Williams, Dana M. (2013). *Anarchy and Society: Reflections on Anarchist Sociology*. [Brill](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brill_Publishers "Brill Publishers"). [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10.1163/9789004252998](https://doi.org/10.1163%2F9789004252998). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-90-04-21496-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-21496-5 "Special:BookSources/978-90-04-21496-5"). [LCCN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LCCN_\(identifier\) "LCCN (identifier)") [2013033844](https://lccn.loc.gov/2013033844).
- Tamblyn, Nathan (30 April 2019). ["The Common Ground of Law and Anarchism"](https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10991-019-09223-1). *Liverpool Law Review*. **40** (1): 65–78\. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10.1007/s10991-019-09223-1](https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10991-019-09223-1). [hdl](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hdl_\(identifier\) "Hdl (identifier)"):[10871/36939](https://hdl.handle.net/10871%2F36939). [S2CID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_\(identifier\) "S2CID (identifier)") [155131683](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:155131683).
- [Taylor, Michael](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Taylor_\(political_scientist\) "Michael Taylor (political scientist)") (1982). *Community, Anarchy and Liberty*. [Cambridge University Press](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press "Cambridge University Press"). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)") [0-521-24621-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-24621-0 "Special:BookSources/0-521-24621-0"). [LCCN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LCCN_\(identifier\) "LCCN (identifier)") [82-1173](https://lccn.loc.gov/82-1173).
- Verter, Mitchell (2010). "The Anarchism of the Other Person". In Jun, Nathan J.; Wahl, Shane (eds.). *New Perspectives on Anarchism*. [Rowman & Littlefield](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rowman_%26_Littlefield "Rowman & Littlefield"). pp. 67–84\. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-7391-3240-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7391-3240-1 "Special:BookSources/978-0-7391-3240-1"). [LCCN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LCCN_\(identifier\) "LCCN (identifier)") [2009015304](https://lccn.loc.gov/2009015304).
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